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Dr. Saad Abdul Razzak
Hussain*
THE POLITICAL ROLE OF CITIES’
POOR IN IRAQ**
Throughout the past six decades, Iraq
witnessed high rates of urbanization compared to other countries
around the world1. The heavy
immigration from the country to towns left profound impacts and led
to the emergence of some phenomenal problems such as the housing
problem; crowdedness of cities; high crime rates; deterioration of
social services - health, education ... etc. All this had a
significant impact on the cultural level as the modern urban life2
was retrogressing as regards the traditional rural values and
standards. In other words, the cultures of the urban middle classes
retrogressed in favor of the culture of poor categories from rural
origins. Politically, this phenomenon has marginalized the citizen's
role in our country as people lost several political rights and
turned into furious groups who only understand the language of
violence. This forced them to be affiliated to groups that call for
realization of their objectives by force which negatively affected
the current political and democratic process.
This paper addresses the political
results of urbanization in terms of the overcrowdedness of rural
migrants in poor districts surrounding or near the center of big
cities - districts which lack basic services particularly health
ones.
Those who immigrate to big cities
constitute, through living in ghettos isolated from other suburbs
particularly middle class ones, a sub-culture different from both
urban and rural cultures. These categories are independent and do
not belong to the urban classes at the social level. They are mainly
characterized by their transitional nature, thus they will transform
in the future to be basic classes in the city.
This paper shall also address how
these social categories turned into political powers that affect the
current political process in our country.
1. Historical And Theoretical Aspects Of
Urbanization Concept:
Urbanization was associated with the
European industrialization which emerged in England in the middle of
the 18th century. Industrialization promoted rural immigration to
cities in need of labor and at the same time imposed a new pattern
for social relations appropriate to the modern industrialized
community. Louis Wirth, the US Sociologist, defined urbanization as:
"replacement of primitive relations with secondary relations;
weakening the affinity bonds; deterioration of the social importance
of family and neighborhood; and weakening the traditional bases of
social solidarity".3 George
Zemel, the German Sociologist, declared that the increase in the
population size leads to qualitative change in their social
relations according to daily life experiences. “It is well
established that a sizable group has to develop forms and means
appropriate for these groups. On the other hand, it is well
recognized that smaller groups have characteristics of individual
interaction that inevitably disappear if such groups grow bigger”.4
Sociology, in the beginning, addressed
this duality and expressed two kinds of communities: small and big
sized communities; rural and urban communities; and
pre-industrialization and industrialized communities. Fredinalad
Twins, the German Sociologist, referred to this duality as local
group and community; Emil Dorkaim referred to it as automatic and
organic solidarity; and Garles Coli referred to it as primitive and
secondary groups.
The successive development of the
industrialized community; using modern technology in agriculture;
concentration of population in cities; and decrease of the number of
workers in the agricultural sector have together led to the fact
that urbanization governs the modern community relations. The
duality between urban and rural areas has ceased and the urban
relations and values won. Rural community with the traditional sense
ceased to exist as it, if we could say that, has turned into an
urbanized rural community. Thus, its population is small compared to
city population and most of them are city residents who came here
for relaxation and recreation. The percentage of residents working
in agriculture does not exceed 3-5% of the total population.
Urbanization has taken another
direction in the Third World countries as “cities developed
completely different from industrialized countries.”
5 The increase in the population
was not accompanied by the urban control over the living style; on
the contrary, urbanization was replaced by rural values and
cultures; in other words, cities were ruralized. Heavy rural
immigration to cities; failure of agricultural sector; and absence
of industry made rural immigrants keep their culture, songs, values
and spread them in all tracks of city communities.
It has been difficult to describe the
current urbanization process in the Third World cities using
prevailing concepts which made some researchers come up with new
concepts including hyper-urbanization or over-urbanization which
refer to the rapid urban population growth without industrial
economy development which leads to poor urban services; massive
unemployment and abject poverty; deterioration of living standards;
social deviation; political and cultural tensions; and housing and
crowdedness problems.6 The
report of "World Community Affairs Department" Committee summarized
the urbanization problem in the Third World countries as follows:
urbanization rates are not compatible with industrialization rates
because “cities should attract population in a stage where their
economic status could provide job opportunities; housing; sanitary;
and other basic services. Eventually, this leads to urban
deterioration; successive social tensions and crimes; and other
problems”.7
2. The Magnitude Of Urbanization Phenomenon
In Iraq:
Iraq is one of the countries that
witnessed high levels of urbanization. The Iraqi urbanization rates
exceeded the developing countries' rates.8
Thus, the urban population didn't exceed 25% in 1930; however, it
reached about 75% in 1995.9
According to population estimates in 2003, urban population reached
177236933 out of total population 26340227 - i.e. 67%.10
The Iraqi people have lived in three
different social environments: nomadic, rural and urban. Attractions
of Gulf countries through money, social prestige and job
opportunities made the nomads, who worked in the agricultural
sector, disappear from Iraq. Nomads constituted 5% of total
population in 1930, but this percentage disappeared during the
following decades.
Urbanization phenomenon has taken
significant dimensions ever since mid last century. Mr. Fenelon,
Senior Statistician in Iraq in 1957 mentioned that: "a new type of
instability emerged, immigration from the country to cities, which
has started to affect rural communities. Almost in each province,
there is a tendency that main cities may get bigger at the expense
of villages".11 Large
immigration between 1947 -1957 was estimated at about “half a
million people who left the provinces in which they were born to
other provinces”. Baghdad's share was about 200 thousand immigrants,
i.e. 40% of total immigrants; Basra's share was 28 thousand
immigrants, 5% of total immigrants. Most immigrants in this period
were from Missan from which 68 thousand immigrated to Baghdad and 18
thousand to Basra. “The south six provincess - Qote, Al-Hela,
Karbalaa, Al-Dewania, Al-Amara, Al-Nasseria - lost 169 thousand
persons”.12 The number of rural
immigrants to Baghdad alone during 1957 - 1965 reached about 210
thousand persons; an increase of 23 thousand persons compared to the
last decade. This flux continued from Qote, Al- Dewania and Basara
instead of Al-Nasseria and Al-Amara.13
In 1977 statistics, total inter-province immigrants reached about
1,7 million, 14% of total population. In 1987 statistics, total
immigrants reached 2 million; 12% of total population.14
During the period 1970-1990,
immigration rates from the country to cities witnessed a decline
compared to 1950-1970 as the rate decreased to 29% after it had
reached 54%.15 Large rural
immigrations headed to the Capital Baghdad where the population
concentration was more than other Iraqi cities. The development
policy of the early 1970s encouraged immigration to move towards the
Capital with the available job opportunities, education,
entertainment...etc. Therefore, Baghdad has almost contained a
quarter of the total population. Baghdad was ranked 48 amongst the
85 mega-cities around the world with a larger population than other
Iraqi cities. This categorized Baghdad under the first city concept
that refers to the concentration of urbanization in one city
controlling other cities and provinces.16
Rural immigration took place during
the fifties because of hard living conditions and tyranny of land
owners. Hanna Batato explains the reasons why the Shiites become the
majority of Baghdad's population in the seventies though they were
no more than fifth of the population in the twenties. He considered
this “the result of the excessive immigration of farmers from
different tribes living in rural areas due to several factors
including the attractive life in cities; huge difference in income
levels in rural and urban areas; suppressive Sheik system in the
Shiite districts of Al-Qote and Al-Amara; and dry rivulets of the
Tigris due to the rapid development of the pump system in Al-Qote
and Baghdad”. 17
In a social survey conducted in
Baghdad on a sample of immigrants in mid-fifties as regards the
reasons of immigration from the country to cities, the results
showed that immigration “was due to the harsh living conditions in
the country versus the attraction sources of cities. Such conditions
included hunger, tyranny of land owners, and crop damage because of
hurricanes ...etc. Inspite of the low income of those immigrants,
40% of immigrants interviewed acquired less than 90 Dinars annually;
most of them believe that they are better off in terms of living
conditions, housing, and food than before”.18
Even after the revolution of 14 July
1958 and the issuance of agricultural reform law and the conditions
of the implementation thereof, rural immigration to cities never
ceased but rather increased than before. In an unpublished letter
written by Athyle Al-Gomred presented to the Development Conference
in London University in December 1976, it was mentioned that: “the
political instability and the delay in the implementation of the
agriculture reform law; and disorder of social system in rural areas
have all led to immigration again.Immigration was facile with the
disappearance of the authorities that used to force farmers to stick
to their land in addition to the government promises to suburb
residents to improve the living conditions; this attracted massive
numbers of rural immigrants”.19
The massive changes in the
agricultural and traditional structures in the country and failure
to provide life requirements for huge numbers of countrymans have
led to their immigration to cities especially big ones. Additional
reasons for immigration were lack of appropriate job opportunities;
lack of wealth, goods and services compared to cities; poor
agricultural production; bad agricultural seasons...etc. Therefore,
the contribution of agricultural sector to Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) decreased from 57% in 1947 to 12% in 1987. “Discrepancy and
inequity appear clearly between rural and urban population in
different aspects of life. The per capita share of public services
in education and health in rural areas is only half that of urban
areas. Economic deprivation from other services, such as water,
electricity, sanitary drainage and entertainment means, in rural
areas has become more serious. Thus, the deprived population of such
services in rural areas reached about 90% in many developing
countries. Due to the rapid growth of urbanization phenomenon, only
quantitative growth (geographical and demographic), inequity between
rural and urban areas has grown serious as urbanization in the
developing countries including Iraq follows the primitive model
instead of the standard model as in the developed countries now.
Inequitable opportunities were not only restricted to rural areas,
in the traditional sense, but to big cities such as Baghdad and
Basra. The outskirts of such cities have become attraction centers
for rural immigrants due to repelling rather than attracting factors
and due to the prevailing urbanization model in countries where big
cities witnessed ruralization rather than urbanization phenomenon.
These phenomena have negatively impacted city residents and urban
areas which witnessed increases in population rates higher than the
public services provided”.20 The
population increase in urban areas relates to a number of economic
and social transformations; however, two major factors played an
important role in this regard: 1) concentration of new job
opportunities in urban areas; 2) use of automation in agriculture
and development of agricultural methods.21
3.
Socio-Economic Status Of Rural Immigrants In Big Cities:
People who have a decent life and a
job do not immigrate. Most people migrate from one place to another
due to the harsh living conditions in their original residency with
the purpose of improving their economic status. Males often migrate
when they reach the age of work and then they bring along their
families. Though life in cities was better than life in the country,
in early fifties, a small population, less than 20%, “lived in a
standard that could be described as healthy and comfortable while a
few enjoyed all amenities and the available updated technical
tools”.22 For example, providing
electricity and safe water did not exceed 50%. The poor residing in
cities lived in “huts consisting of one or two-rooms made of clay or
canes with no windows and with one big door in the middle. Such huts
contain no furniture expect for some blankets and quilts to cover
all family members who pile together on the ground in winter nights
in addition to cradles for babies and wooden boxes to store the
basic needs; clay water pot; and two cooking pots. Families live, in
general, in a backyard behind a wall. In this area, all housework is
conducted where there are chicken and perhaps a goat, if they were
lucky to have one. The basic food is bread baked by women in clay
oven which they sometimes eat with tea, meat, rice, vegetables or
dates”. 23
A number of field surveys conducted in
1961-1962 showed that the living standard near Baghdad has slightly
improved. The pay of mansion builders; most of them are immigrants
from south governorates to Baghdad, reached 429 Fils / day for
skilled labor and 300 Fils for unskilled labor. “Back then drinking
water was not available and in some seasons when the river water
became very salty, they had to buy water cans from hawkers for 10
fils / 4 gallon can. Food was adequate though it lacked calcium and
vitamins; they also consumed limited amounts of animal protein while
food of immigrants from south Mesopotamia, who used to eat fish
frequently, had plenty of protein. Families had three meals per day:
bread, tea and milk or yoghurt at breakfast; bread, dates, fresh
fruit including watermelon in its season; vegetables including
onions, cucumber, tomatoes at lunch; bread and soup containing
tomato juice with onion and butter then tea and sugar. Sometimes
they had rice but they rarely ate meat. Consequently, there were
many cases of anemia due to losing blood because of parasites living
in intestines”.24 In 1962,
another study on family budget in Baghdad revealed “a significant
increase in the monthly expense for families living in houses or
huts alike. The ratio of income spent on food was less than the same
in 1954. Spending on meat and fish increased against spending on
wheat”. 25 Also, the living
conditions improved for all categories of the Iraqi people in
mid-seventies due to the upsurge in oil prices accompanied by
economic development known as "explosive development" that haven't
lasted long because Iraq entered into a series of wars, setbacks,
international sanctions and economic siege which led to impoverished
middle classes. “The real development did not last more than one
decade as it was not long until Iraq suffered from severe setbacks
that delayed development. This deterioration affected all facets of
life including quantitative, qualitative and structural population
and especially population growth pattern”.26
4. Sociological Conflict:
First rural immigrants in early
forties and fifties, who settled in the outskirts especially near
Baghdad, had a conflict over two distinct cultures and schools of
thought and livelihood. Contrary to the early manifestations that
the conflict shall definitely be resolved in favor of urban living
pattern, what happened was quite the opposite as urban culture could
not resist in front of the continuous rural pressures. Thus, Iraqi
cities did not have the mechanisms of the European cities at the
time of the industrial revolution which socially integrated the
people, be they from rural or urban areas. Though there were some
new sectors in Iraqi cities such as education, army, bureaucracy,
crafts and industries, such sectors could not withstand legions of
rural immigrants. While rural immigrants were dazzled by Baghdad's
lights, habits, noise, mystique, and lifestyle five or six decades
ago, their living descendents found Baghdad their home where they
find their relatives, habits, accent, and favorite songs. Rural
immigration turned many districts in Baghdad into rural settlements.
The urban culture had different
behavior patterns; certain social relations; distinct values and
figures; and a great number of social connections and relations with
different people without having to establish personal relations with
them. Most relations were established through social roles void of
personal characteristics of the performer of this or that role. As
such, urban community is full of impersonal, secondary and formal
relations. City residents are interested in their houses because
this is the only place they enjoy intimate personal relations life
within their family. City residents spend substantial amounts of
money and exert tremendous efforts to select the district in line
with their social status; furnish their houses in harmony with their
social class; take care of their appearance and clothes, cleanliness
of their residency, and safety of food from infectious diseases; in
addition to the availability of safe water, sanitation, disease
prevention, numerous public services...etc. City residents pay
attention to education as this enables them to acquire the skills
required for different professions which provide for an adequate
livelihood. They depend on acquired positions rather than inherited
ones. They are also concerned with mass media; means of
communications and fast flow of information; and means of
entertainment...etc. Cities have acquired such values and symbols
through works conducted within, which necessarily reflect the values
of the urban middle classes.
The continuous rural immigration
delayed the progress of urban life and led to the retrogression of
urban culture in favor of rural culture and values. Thus, the
country people maintain relations with their original tribes and
villages by constituting rural communities adapted to city community
and establishing sub-cultures that reflect and transfer some village
features to cities. The values of rural culture are characterized by
acceptance of fate, despair, doubt, resentment, and disdain of outer
world; and ability to pursue life and survive. The origin of such
attitudes and values are attributed to the nature of rural life as
countrymans aim is to live and survive rather than seek profit.
Survival here means the possibility of avoiding natural and social
disasters such as bad agricultural seasons, hurricanes, storms,
floods, plant and animal diseases, wars, fires, epidemics, political
disasters ...etc. The farmer perceives life as a recurrent cycle of
similar seasons, generations and tasks rather than successive
advanced stages. Therefore, escape from the material life is the end
of human endeavors in a timeless place based on abstract survival.
The farmer only expects life at the subsistence level or scarcity
which he predicts through march of life. So, his strategy is based
on the reduction of risks he might encounter. Therefore, traditions,
and wisdom inherited along generations, become his best guide and
safest life guarantee. Traditions- routine and rituals- secures the
best opportunities for success through doing things as they are
usually done or rather through the inherited experience. For these
reasons, the farmer does not aspire for a better future; he does not
expect better world, and hence, he does not depend on the change
that could come along through social or scientific revolution.
The values of rural community focus on
land, family, relatives, neighborhood, and tribes. Family is the
basic socioeconomic unit in the country as countrymans fulfill their
basic and secondary needs and acquire their social stand through
their families. Rural relations are characterized by intimate,
personal and direct nature. A countryman leads a harmonized life;
and recognizes his community members with their names, families and
tribal origins. Those members have nearly similar professions,
tribal and religious affiliations. Relations and neighborhood are
characterized with solidarity which makes this affiliation a value
in itself. A countryman does not easily accept others who are
different in religion, culture, profession and tribal origins.
The sub-culture of immigrants to
cities is characterized by basic features of the rural culture and
differs according to circumstances encountered by immigrants in
cities. One of the first things immigrants to cities face is being
subject to a completely new social environment that warns against
the social relations prevailing in cities, different from their own
habits, values and standards. The daily rhythm of urban life is more
diverse and faster and does not depend on changes, succession of the
four seasons, or day and night. The most important point that draws
the countryman's attention is the disharmony in cities, including
the rich and the poor; rich and poor districts; great diversity in
professions and jobs; several social and cultural roots;
contradictions of habits and values; the role of women in urban
life...etc.
In the absence of a mechanism that
incorporates rural immigrants into city life, the countryman sticks
to his inherited traditions; becomes close to people of similar
rural and tribal origins; and strengthens his relations with them as
the group to which he is affiliated. When the countryman finds
himself undesirable in cities and does not find work that provides a
stable life, he hates city and its symbols thereof especially its
middle classes and cultures and awaits the chance to take revenge.
The immigrants move in a complicated symbolic cultural environment
with rural instinctive irrational folklore. He idolizes a certain
symbolic figure, often a prominent leader or savior whether this
figure was a real, legendary, or religious symbol. No matter how
modest the immigrant's understanding of religion is, it plays a
vital role in his culture for it includes many holy symbols. The
more frustrations the immigrant faces, the more he holds on to his
religion. Thus, the psychology of such category goes in conformity
with religious thought where everybody is equal in rank, social
status and nearly in sex and property.
5. Uprising Of The Poor In Cities:
Iraq was a unified community upon
establishment in 1912. Inside the well-known three social
environments: nomad, rural and urban areas, local communities were
significantly different from each other. Localism, whether
affiliated to a tribe, faction, sect, religion, town, geographical
area or other, is the basic characteristic of different communities
and groups. Local communities were different in terms of language,
accents, origins, religious and sectarian affiliation, values,
standards ...etc. Because there are no means to integrate all these
localities into one entity, similar to the role played by industry
in the western communities, strong Iraq played that role by setting
the bases for forming a unified Iraqi community, a mission which has
not accomplished yet, through using means such as: the Constitution,
laws, education, the army, the market, prisons, to integrate many
local communities. The existence of laws of tribal conflicts, until
abolished following revolution of July 14th, 1958, refers to social
duality. Hanna Batato observed as regards the Shiites' integration
in Iraq: "When the modern country was established in Iraq in 1921,
the Shiites were not a coherent entity though they had common
characteristics. However, they were divided, as other Iraqi
population, into independent distinguished groups. In many cases,
they didn't consider themselves Shiites as their first and strongest
affiliation was to their tribes which took place particularly in
villages".27
The cultural background of immigrants
was not in harmony with the nature of political community in urban
areas especially democratic roots such as political pluralism,
elections, expression of opinions ...etc. The rural immigration
weakened these political communities by rendering cities teem with
crowds of politically illiterate masses which changed many of the
objectives of political organizations. Moreover, the governing
authorities and incumbent parties led immigrants to achieve their
primary objectives. Thus, political advantage of immigrants is their
willingness to work under dominant movements or charismatic figures.
It is enough to say a few words or use certain gestures in order to
make these categories lose their balance and turn into dynamic
throngs willing to destroy anything. There is always a "word", a
"picture", or a "symbol" that has the "password'" effect that
spreads like wildfire among these categories and guide them to the
resolution of the ambiguity in the exceptional or unusual
surrounding circumstances. “Some terms and phrases have power that
could not be weakened by reason or affected by evidence. No sooner
are these terms and phrases uttered by their speaker than the
audience revere such words. Many people think that these words have
divine power”.28
This category played a distinguished
role in the political events in Iraq since the fifth decade of last
century. “The huge increase in the government size accompanied by
deterioration at the agricultural level and other previously growing
sectors have led to huge and satisfactory population growth. Ever
since 1958, city population was doubled almost three times. This
category was 63 millions; in Baghdad alone 2,6% of the total
population. The problems and tensions triggered by such rapid
changes unusually led to the instability of the post-revolution
systems. This, in its turn, explains the confusion and random
attempts to cope up with the situation”.29
Immigrants do not adhere to politics through the regulated political
process based on modern political persuasion, dialogue and
organization; and gradual objective accomplishment. They rather
contribute to the political process through instinctive, emotional
and irrational means known as “collective behavior”. Such collective
behavior takes place when a large number of people assemble in one
place where they face extraordinary circumstances.30
The collective behavior resembles the regulated one in terms of the
interaction of a group of people together, however; it differs in
being instinctive and ever-changing which is difficult or less
likely to be predicted. If the regulated individual behavior was
determined by a number of controls and mechanisms such as values,
standards, motives...etc, the collective behavior is also determined
by similar controls. The discrepancy between them is that the
regulated behavior is a recurrent daily behavior in which the
individual faces familiar repeated conditions and the collective
behavior takes place under extraordinary unrepeated circumstances.
The collective behavior appears “when something wrong happens in the
people's social environment. For example, people panic when faced by
grave dangers and consequently indulge in modes of enthusiasm,
agitation, and heresies due to getting bored of the status quo; they
further lead riots to face severe deprivation such as inflation; and
adhere to revolutionary and reform movements due to their sufferings
of the prevailing social conditions”.31
In addition, the collective behavior
works at time of political, economic and social changes particularly
in the time of crises such as social instability; normative
disorder; or social structure failure to contain the new changes.
Rural immigrants played a significant political role after the fall
of the previous regime in April 2003 as the door was wide open for
this category to participate in the political process. From the
first days following the regime fall, a great number of immigrants
declared their loyalty to the Shiite leader Moqtada Al-Sadr and
joined the army of "El-Mahdy" which fought the US troops in 2004;
and participated in the elections held in December and January 2005.
They voted for "Coalition" representatives who won a landslide
victory in both elections. Revolution (Sadr) City, which includes
more than two million immigrants from east Tigris rural areas,
played a key role in the victory of the" Coalition". Thus,
immigrants residing in poor urban districts respond better to the
religious and sectarian symbols rather than the democratic
discourse.
6. Conclusion:
The democratic future of Iraq depends
heavily on the potentials to provide education and job opportunities
to and improve the living conditions of rural immigrants to Iraqi
cities especially Baghdad which already hosts most of them. Leaving
such categories under the influence of powers that do not believe in
democracy shall negatively affect the future of our country. So, in
order to resolve the problem of poor areas in cities, the following
has to be realized:
1. Changing the infrastructure of
districts where the rural immigrants reside with a view to reducing
overpopulation in these districts through the design of popular
dwellings according to the social conditions of these categories. In
addition, basic services such as health, electricity, water shall be
provided along with a reasonable number of green areas.
2. Integrating immigrants into other social categories in big cities
by providing high living standards; reducing unemployment
particularly among youth; and raising pay levels for a better life.
3. Raising the standard of poor categories, especially in big
cities, as regards the living, social, cultural and educational
aspects. Also, the environment surrounding poor areas in cities
should be properly improved.
4. Raising the educational and cultural standards of migrant women;
incorporating them in the labor market; and empowering them to
assume appropriate positions.
5. Assigning an important role to the Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) in these areas in order to protect the interests of the
members thereof away from the state interventions.
6. Improving the conditions of youth and students from the migrant
community through improving the performance level of scientific and
cognitive aspects in Iraqi universities; and involve youth in
cultural and sports activities through encouraging youth to open
their own clubs for leisure time and entertainment.
References:
1. Urbanization simply refers to
statistical ratios of city population to the entire population.
2. Urbanism refers to the living style of city population in terms
of culture, social relations, values ...etc imposed by their common
living conditions within the same city.
3. Louis Wirth, 'On Cities and Social Life', Selected Papers, The
University of Chicago Press, 1964, p. 80
4. Peter Saunders, 'Social Theory and Urban Question', Hutchinson,
London 1984, p.85-6.
5. Anthony Giddens, 'Sociology', Polity Press, Cambridge 1989,
p.569.
6. John W. Bordo & John J. Hartman, 'Urban Sociology', F.E. Peacock
Publishers, Inc., USA 1982, p. 350.
7. "Neighbors in one world", text of the report of the International
Community Affairs Department and Alam Alma’rfa series, Kuwait
1995,p49-50.
8. See "Association of Iraqi Economists", Human Development Report ,
Baghdad 1995, p35.
9. A number of statistics and indicators, the United Nations, the
Socio-Economic Commission of West Asia, Fourth edition, New York,
1997, p25.
10. Ministry of Planning and Developmental Cooperation, Central
Agency, New York.
11. Annual Statistical Group for Statistics and Information
Technology, Dr. Fenelon, Iraq Times, annual edition, 1957, See:
Edith Waye and F.Benroz
12. Edith Waye and F.Benroz, Iraq: study of foreign relations and
internal development 1915-1975, translated by: Abdel-Megeed El-Qeesy,
Al-Dar Arabia for encyclopedia, Part I , Beirut , Lebanon, first
edition, 1989, p279.
13. Benroz , Part I, previous source, p. 395.
14. Association of Iraqi Economists.p.35.
15. Ibid., p 36.
16. The UN Socio-economic Commission of West Asia, op.cit., p. 27.
17. Hanna Batato, "Iraqi Shiites: political role and integration in
the community", translated by Faleh Abdel-Gabaar. www.iraqcp.org/thakafajadida/hanna1.htm.
18. Benroz, Part I, op.cit., pp.279-280.
19. Benroz, Ibid, p 395.
20. Association of Iraqi Economists, op.cit., p 20.
21. Ibid, p36.
22. Benroz , Part I, op.cit., p 278.
23. Ibid, p. 280.
24. Ibid, pp. 295-296.
25. Ibid, p. 296.
26. Association of Iraqi Economists.op.cit, 20.
27. Hanna Batato, "Iraqi Shiites:. political role and integration in
the community", translated by Faleh Abdel-Gabaar. www.iraqcp.org/thakafajadida/hanna1.htm.
28. Gostav Lobon, "Spirit of Socialism", translated by Ahmed Fat-hy
Zaghlool Basha, Mofam Publishing House, Algeria, 1988, p.116.
29. Hanna Batato, "Old Social Strata and Revolutionary Movements in
Iraq", Third Edition, translated by Afeef Al-Razaz, Arab Research
Institution, Beirut, 1992, p. 439.
30. Collective Behavior is the behavior of people in crowds, state
of enthusiasm, fashions, fads, in states of panic, cults,
crazes...etc and in more organized phenomena such as social
movements ,be they revolutionary or reformative. See, Encyclopedia
Britannica, Volume 16, 15th edition, Chicago 1991, p.556.
31. Neil J Smelser, 'Theory of Collective Behavior', Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London 1962, p.47.
-----------------------------
* PHD in Sociology From ‘charles university’, prague-czech Republic
** This Paper was delivered to the Conference of “ Federal Civil
State and national peace in the current stage”. London, 27-28
October 2006.
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